Ce mois de janvier marque l’aboutissement de plusieurs chantiers en cours depuis plusieurs mois à l’Observatoire. Nous sommes tout d’abord très heureux de vous annoncer la publication de notre ouvrage Le Bien-être en France : Rapport 2020. Fondé sur quatre années de travaux, dont une bonne part inédits, cet ouvrage déploie notre suivi des dimensions du bien-être en France, à la fois en lien avec la conjoncture et de manière spécifique sur un ensemble de domaines. Nous vous donnons rendez-vous l’après-midi du 08 février pour vous le présenter.
Notre note conjoncturelle, qui montre un contraste entre le reflux des dimensions émotionnelles du bien-être vers leurs niveaux de moyen terme, après l’euphorie de juin, et les dimensions plus matérielles, qui restent à un niveau élevé.
Avec Sarah Flèche, nous retraçons dans « Ces Enseignants qui nous marquent » certains des principaux résultats de son étude sur le long terme de l’effet des enseignants sur les performances cognitives et non-cognitives des élèves.
Nous relevons également un grand nombre de publications, allant de la parution des résultats de l’enquête VIRAGE par l’Ined au rapport très critique du Wellcome Trust sur les conditions d’exercice de la recherche.
Observatoire
Le Bien-être en France : Rapport 2020
Nous avons le plaisir de vous annoncer la parution d’une nouvelle publication : Le Bien-être en France, Rapport 2020. Dans cet ouvrage, premier d’une série que nous voulons annuelle, nous revenons sur l’évolution de nos indicateurs de bien-être au cours de l’année écoulée, et réalisons un ensemble de coups de projecteurs inspirés de nos travaux. Pour 2020, nous nous sommes particulièrement intéressés à l’impact du Covid-19, au rôle de l’éducation dans la construction de la confiance et du bien-être, au bien-être au travail, aux seniors, à la dimension socio-spatiale du bien-être Nous vous proposons également d’adopter un regard de plus long terme avec un texte qui retrace le gain en légitimité de la recherche du bonheur dans la France depuis l’Après-Guerre.
Nous présenterons ce volume le lundi 08 février, 14h00 – 17h30, au cours d’une conférence en ligne.
Lien de connexion : https://s.42l.fr/BienEtreFrance (Zoom)
Pour obtenir une version électronique en avant-première, inscrivez-vous au près d’Eugénie Fernandes eugenie.fernandes@cepremap.org
Le bien-être des Français – Décembre 2020
D’un confinement à l’autre, l’année 2020 a été marquée par des variations importantes dans l’évaluation que les Français ont de leur bien-être. Alors que le mois de juin marquait un point haut pour la plupart de nos indicateurs, décembre 2020 – avec une enquête intégralement conduite pendant le second confinement, marque un repli par rapport à juin.
D’un côté, les dimensions relatives à l’état émotionnel semblent très fortement affectées par la situation de confinement : anxiété face à la situation sanitaire, isolement relationnel forcé, arrêt d’un grand nombre d’activités pèsent sur le bien-être des ménages. D’un autre côté, la satisfaction à l’égard du niveau de vie, reflétant plus les conditions matérielles, ou encore celle à l’égard du travail restent relativement élevées. Ainsi, si la satisfaction dans la vie, qui combine tous ces éléments, se replie nettement, il ne fait pour l’instant que retrouver son niveau moyen d’avant la pandémie.
Ces mouvements opposés des différentes composantes du bien-être suggèrent ainsi que l’épidémie a rendu plus saillantes les dimensions non-matérielles du bien-être, en particulier le rôle joué par les relations sociales.
Ces enseignants qui nous marquent
Le suivi d’une cohorte d’enfants permet de mettre en évidence l’influence sur le long terme que peuvent avoir les enseignants sur leurs élèves. Les travaux de Sarah Flèche à partir d’une cohorte britannique montrent que les enseignantes et enseignants du primaire ont un effet non seulement sur les notes de leurs élèves, mais aussi sur leurs compétences non-cognitives (par exemple l’estime de soi, la persévérance, ou encore les relations interpersonnelles). Cet effet s’observe à court terme sur les notes, mais s’estompe avec les années. Cependant, si l’effet sur les notes diminue au fil du temps, on continue à observer une influence des enseignants sur la réussite de leurs élèves à long terme, que ce soit à travers l’accès à l’université, l’insertion sur le marché du travail, leur santé mentale ou leurs comportements.
La capacité des enseignants à améliorer les performances cognitives de leurs élèves ne va pas nécessairement de pair avec leur capacité à améliorer la dimension non-cognitives. Les capacités à faire progresser les élèves dans l’un ou l’autre constituent deux compétences séparées. Ces compétences ne semblent pas s’acquérir principalement avec l’expérience, puisque l’âge, le nombre d’années d’exercice ou la confiance que les enseignants ont dans leurs pratiques ne semblent pas liées à la valeur ajoutée mesurée. En revanche, les pratiques pédagogiques mises en place par l’enseignant contribuent significativement à expliquer les différences de progressions entre élèves.
Covid-19
Les enfants à l’épreuve du premier confinement
Résumé : Le premier confinement du printemps 2020 a conduit à la fermeture des écoles et à la suspension des activités hors domicile. Assignés à résidence, les enfants d’école primaire se sont plutôt bien adaptés en continuant à faire leur travail scolaire et, profitant d’un temps libéré, ont pu pratiquer leurs activités quotidiennes plus qu’en temps « normal ». Mais pour les parents de statut socioéconomique modeste, le confinement a dégradé les relations familiales, largement accru le temps passé par les enfants sur les écrans, altéré leur sommeil et leur bien-être psychologique, et rendu plus complexes les apprentissages scolaires. Pour les enfants comme pour les adultes, le confinement a accru des inégalités susceptibles de se creuser à moyen terme.
X. Thierry, B. Geay, A. Pailhé, N. Berthomier, J. Camus, N. Cauchi-Duval, J-L. Lanoë, S. Octobre, J. Pagis, L. Panico, T. Siméon, A. Solaz et l’équipe SAPRIS, « Les enfants à l’épreuve du premier confinement », Populations et Sociétés, no585, janvier 2021.
Parution de Violences et rapports de genre
L’Ined a publié en janvier le premier grand recueil des recherches menées sur l’enquête Violences et rapports de genre (Virage). Réalisée en 2015 auprès de 27 000 femmes et hommes, cette enquête constitue un outil de compréhension inédit des violences de genre, de la famille en passant par le lieu de travail ou les migrations.
https://www.ined.fr/fr/publications/editions/grandes-enquetes/violences-et-rapports-de-genre/
Paradoxe d’Easterlin en psychologie
Le paradoxe d’Easterlin semble rencontrer un intérêt renouvelé dans les recherches en psychologie. Après Jebb, A.T., Tay, L., Diener, E. et al. Happiness, income satiation and turning points around the world. Nat Hum Behav 2, 33–38 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-017-0277-0 plusieurs contributions abordent ce sujet dans le champ de la psychologie.
The expanding class divide in happiness in the United States, 1972–2016
Abstract: Is there a growing class divide in happiness? Among U.S. adults ages 30 and over in the nationally representative General Social Survey (N = 44,198), the positive correlation between socioeconomic status (SES; including income, education, and occupational prestige) and happiness grew steadily stronger between the 1970s and 2010s. Associations between income and happiness were linear, with no tapering off at higher levels of income. Between 1972 and 2016, the happiness of high-SES White adults was fairly stable, whereas the happiness of low-SES White adults steadily declined. Among Black adults, the happiness of low-SES adults was fairly stable, whereas the happiness of high-SES adults increased. Thus, the happiness advantage favoring high-SES adults has expanded over the decades. Age–period–cohort analyses based on hierarchical linear modeling demonstrate that this effect is primarily caused by time period rather than by birth cohort or age.
Twenge, J. M., & Cooper, A. B. (2020). The expanding class divide in happiness in the United States, 1972–2016. Emotion. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000774
Experienced well-being rises with income, even above $75,000 per year
Abstract: What is the relationship between money and well-being? Research distinguishes between two forms of well-being: people’s feelings during the moments of life (experienced well-being) and people’s evaluation of their lives when they pause and reflect (evaluative well-being). Drawing on 1,725,994 experience-sampling reports from 33,391 employed US adults, the present results show that both experienced and evaluative well-being increased linearly with log(income), with an equally steep slope for higher earners as for lower earners. There was no evidence for an experienced well-being plateau above $75,000/y, contrary to some influential past research. There was also no evidence of an income threshold at which experienced and evaluative well-being diverged, suggesting that higher incomes are associated with both feeling better day-to-day and being more satisfied with life overall.
Matthew A. Killingsworth, Experienced well-being rises with income, even above $75,000 per year, PNAS January 26, 2021 118 (4) e2016976118; https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2016976118
The Easterlin Paradox
Abstract: The Easterlin Paradox states that at a point in time happiness varies directly with income, both among and within nations, but over time the long-term growth rates of happiness and income are not significantly related. The principal reason for the contradiction is social comparison. At a point in time those with higher income are happier because they are comparing their income to that of others who are less fortunate, and conversely for those with lower income. Over time, however, as incomes rise throughout the population, the incomes of one’s comparison group rise along with one’s own income and vitiates the otherwise positive effect of own-income growth on happiness. Critics of the Paradox mistakenly present the positive relation of happiness to income in cross-section data or in short-term time fluctuations as contradicting the nil relation of long-term trends.
Easterlin, Richard A. and J., O’Connor, Kelsey, (2020), The Easterlin Paradox, No 13923, IZA Discussion Papers, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
Lu sur le web
What researchers think about the culture they work in
Le Wellcome Trust, un financeur majeur de la recherche au Royaume-Uni, vient de publier les résultats d’une vaste enquête sur les conditions d’exercice de la recherche. Voici ce qu’en dit le directeur de l’institution :
These results paint a shocking portrait of the research environment – and one we must all help change. The pressures of working in research must be recognised and acted upon by all, from funders, to leaders of research and to heads of universities and institutions. As a funder, we understand that our own approach has played a role. We’re committed to changing this, to foster a creative, supportive, and inclusive research environment.
Jeremy Farrar, Director of Wellcome.
En effet, une grande majorité des chercheurs interrogés estiment que le degré de concurrence actuel génère un environnement hostile. Les deux tiers ont été témoins de harcèlement, et 43 % en ont été victimes. De nombreux chercheurs occupent de fait des positions d’encadrement, mais moins de la moité ont reçu une formation à cet effet, ce qui se traduit par l’absence courante des pratiques élémentaires d’un encadrement de qualité.
https://wellcome.org/reports/what-researchers-think-about-research-culture
Quantifying the externalities of renewable energy plants using wellbeing data: The case of biogas
Abstract: Although there is strong support for renewable energy plants, they are often met with local resistance. We quantify the externalities of renewable energy plants using well-being data. We focus on the example of biogas, one of the most frequently deployed technologies besides wind and solar. To this end, we combine longitudinal household data with novel panel data on more than 13,000 installations in Germany. Identification rests on a spatial difference-in-differences design exploiting exact geographical coordinates of households, biogas installations and wind direction and intensity. We find limited evidence for negative externalities: impacts are moderate in size and spatially confined to a radius of 2, 000 metres around plants. We discuss implications for research and regional planning, in particular minimum setback distances and potential monetary compensations.
Krekel, Christian, Rechlitz, Julia, Rode, Johannes and Zerrahn, Alexander, (2020), Quantifying the externalities of renewable energy plants using wellbeing data: The case of biogas, CEP Discussion Papers, Centre for Economic Performance, LSE.
Field experiments and public policy
La revue Behavioral Public Policy consacre son volume de décembre de 2020 à l’application des expérimentations aux politiques publiques. Comme le précédent numéro spécial sur l’usage des indicateurs de bien-être subjectif comme objectif des politiques publiques, ce numéro se compose d’un article-manifeste initial, suivi d’un ensemble de réactions de soutien et de critiques.
Observing traumatic events: Indirect effects of flood shocks on well-being and preferences
Abstract: This paper investigates how witnessing adverse weather events affects individuals’ perceptions and consequently their personal well-being. To identify potential exposure to a weather shock, we link satellite-based data on flooding to an extensive household panel survey from rural Southeast Asia. We find that mere proximity to a potentially adverse shock, even without reporting any actual experience of the shock, can be sufficient to reduce individual well-being levels. This effect is not only restricted to the present but can also impinge on expected future well-being dynamics. Such a persistent distortionary effect from witnessing a weather shock may also have politico-economic repercussions by, for instance, altering support for redistributive policies.
Stein, Wiebke and Weisser, Reinhard A., (2020), Observing traumatic events: Indirect effects of flood shocks on well-being and preferences, Hannover Economic Papers (HEP), Leibniz Universität Hannover, Wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Fakultät.
Using memories to assess the intrapersonal comparability of wellbeing reports
Abstract: Research on subjective wellbeing typically assumes that responses to survey questions are comparable across respondents and across time. However, if this assumption is violated, standard methods in empirical research may mislead. I address this concern with three contributions. First, I give a theoretical analysis of the extent and direction of bias that may result from violations of this assumption. Second, I propose to use respondents’ stated memories of their past wellbeing to estimate and thereby to correct for differentials in scale use. Third, using the proposed approach, I test whether wellbeing reports are intrapersonally comparable across time. Using BHPS data, I find that the direction in which explanatory variables affect latent satisfaction is typically the same as the direction in which scale use is affected. Unemployment and bereavement appear to have particularly strong effects on scale use. Although discussed in the context of life satisfaction scales, the proposed approach for anchoring response scales is applicable to a wide range of other subjectively reported constructs.
Kaiser, Caspar, (2020), Using memories to assess the intrapersonal comparability of wellbeing reports, EconStor Preprints, ZBW – Leibniz Information Centre for Economics.
How threatening are transformations of happiness scales to subjective wellbeing research?
Abstract: Two recent papers argue that many results based on ordinal reports of happiness can be reversed with suitable monotonic increasing transformations of the associated happiness scale (Bond and Lang 2019; Schröder and Yitzhaki 2017). If true, empirical research utilizing such reports is in trouble. Against this background, we make four main contributions. First, we show that reversals are fundamentally made possible by explanatory variables having heterogenous effects across the distribution of happiness. We derive a simple test of whether reversals are possible by relabelling the scores of reported happiness and deduce bounds for ratios of coefficients under any labelling scheme. Second, we argue that in cases where reversals by relabelling happiness scores are impossible, reversals using an alternative method of Bond and Lang, which is based on ordered probit regressions, are highly speculative. Third, we make apparent that in order to achieve reversals, the analyst must assume that respondents use the response scale in a strongly non-linear fashion. However, drawing from the economic and psychological literature, we present arguments and evidence which suggest that respondents likely use response scales in an approximately linear manner. Fourth, using German SOEP data, we provide additional empirical evidence on whether reversals of effects of standard demographic variables are both possible and plausible. It turns out that reversals by either relabelling or by using Bond & Lang’s approach are impossible or implausible for almost all variables of interest. Although our analysis uses happiness as a special case, our theoretical considerations are applicable to any type of subjective ordinal report.
Kaiser, Caspar and Vendrik, Maarten C.M., (2020), How threatening are transformations of happiness scales to subjective wellbeing research?, No 032, Research Memorandum, Maastricht University, Graduate School of Business and Economics (GSBE).
Unions and Workers’ Well-being
Abstract: If individuals join a trade union their utility should increase. Therefore, union members can be expected to exhibit higher job satisfaction than comparable non-members. This expectation is not consistent with empirical findings. The evidence sometimes indicates that union members have lower job satisfaction, but overall suggests the absence of a robust correlation. This survey discusses empirically relevant determinants of the relationship between trade union membership and job satisfaction. It distinguishes settings in which a trade union provides public goods from those in which it restricts the provision of benefits to its members. Furthermore, the survey summarizes the empirical evidence and indicates possible future research issues.
Goerke, Laszlo, (2020), Unions and Workers’ Well-being, No 202008, IAAEU Discussion Papers, Institute of Labour Law and Industrial Relations in the European Union (IAAEU).
Subjective Wellbeing Inequality Between Cohabiting Partners: Does a Household Kuznets Curve Exist?
Abstract: This study unpacks the question of subjective wellbeing (SWB) inequality between partners in South Africa in the context of declining overall SWB inequality. The analysis, using the National Income Dynamics Study panel for the period 2012–2016, reveals through the decomposition of Theil inequality indices that the reduction in overall SWB inequality has been on the back of reducing inter-household inequality, while intra household inequality between partners has in fact increased in the period of study. The zero-inflated beta regression as well as Oaxaca Blinder decomposition provides evidence of the existence of an intra-household SWB Kuznets curve. The relationship between SWB inequality and household income that emerges from this analysis shows that the reliance on improving household level variables like household income and access to public amenities is not sufficient in reducing intra-household SWB inequality. Further, education based positive assortative mating is found to reduce SWB inequality between partners lending credence to the argument that power dynamics plays an important role in determining the SWB distribution within the household. The findings of the study points to the need to focus on intra-household power dynamics to reduce the SWB gap between partners.
Kollamparambil, U. Subjective Wellbeing Inequality Between Cohabiting Partners: Does a Household Kuznets Curve Exist?. J Happiness Stud (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-020-00334-5
Who Becomes Unhappy when Income Inequality Increases?
Abstract: Literature has established that, on a macroeconomic level, income inequality has a negative effect on average life satisfaction. An unresolved question is, however, which income groups are harmed by income inequality. In this paper we investigate this relationship at the microeconomic level combining national indicators of income inequality with individual data of life satisfaction from the World Values Survey for 39 countries over a period of 25 years. Tests on moderation by income category show that the Gini coefficient is most negatively related to life satisfaction of the lowest income groups, but the negative effects also extends to other income groups. For the income share of the top 1% we find a similar result. These findings show that income inequality is especially a concern for the lower income groups, but that the harmful effect of income inequality also spillovers to the life satisfaction of other income groups.
Lous, B., Graafland, J. Who Becomes Unhappy when Income Inequality Increases?. Applied Research Quality Life (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09906-2
Building an Epidemiology of Happiness
Abstract: Starting from the assumption that improving well-being is the central consideration for public policies, we show how subjective well-being research can help, and already is helping, to choose public policies based on their consequences for all aspects of life. The core of the paper lies in examples where the methods we propose, often in systematic experimental contexts, have already been used to guide the evaluation and ranking of alternative policy options in public health, education, workplace training, and social welfare. The arrival of COVID-19 has increased the urgency for a well-being focus, since the policy decisions being faced by governments dealing with the pandemic require an approach much broader than provided by more typical policy evaluations in all disciplines, including especially the social context and the distribution of costs and consequences. A broader approach to policy design and choice is fully consistent with the underlying aims of epidemiology, with similar gains likely in other policy disciplines. A focus on subjective well-being as an umbrella measure of welfare might help to restore to economics the breadth of purpose and methods it had two centuries ago, when happiness was considered the appropriate goal for private actions and public policies.
Helliwell, John, Gyarmati, David, Joyce, Craig and Orpana, Heather, (2020), Building an Epidemiology of Happiness, No 28095, NBER Working Papers, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.